Figure 12. Conceptualization of a triarchic leadership model conjoining the full range leadership model (Bass & Avolio, 1994) with a transcending construct. 

P4: Transcending leadership contributes to leader motivation an "other"-interest perspective, the consequence of which is manifest in leader self-transcendence. 

Research finding 2: Research question 2 (i.e., "Do the key characteristics evidenced by

healthcare professionals, perceived as transcendent leaders, differ from those of transactional and transformational leaders...?") sought to juxtapose the identified key characteristics of the study participants with those attributes generally associated with the transactional-transformational paradigm in an attempt to discriminate any fundamental or nuanced differences. Discrepancies between the study findings and extant transformational-transactional literature appears to suggest the legitimacy of a leadership construct which extends the existing paradigm; that is, a transcending leadership construct. An interpretative analysis of the findings revealed that the key characteristics of "other"-interest and the social and personal competencies associated with emotional intelligence appear outside of the current purview of transactional and transformational theory, thereby giving credence to the feasibility of an iterative expansion to the full range of leadership model.  

P5. The characteristics of "other"-interest and the social and personal competencies broadly attributed to emotional intelligence theory are distinguishing features which fall outside the literature generally associated with the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm (i.e., full range of leadership model). 

Research finding 3: In completing the process of triangulation, the results of this study

were compared first to extant transactional-transformational leadership theory (i.e., research question 2) and then with four nascent propositions concerning a transcending leadership construct (Aldon, 1998; Cardona, 2000; Crossan, et al., 2000; and Larkin, 1994). The key characteristics identified in this study (i.e., "other"-interest, determined resolve, and the social and personal competencies affiliated with emotional intelligence) and those posited by Cardona (2000) appear the most closely aligned (i.e., servant leadership, leader-member exchange, and motivation). While certain aspects suggested by Aldon (1998), Crossan et al. (2002), and Larkin (1994) offered intriguing insights into the phenomenon being studied, their assertions were largely undetected in this study. 

As with any proposition, the intent is to proffer a particular perspective or viewpoint, so

as to engender future dialogue and investigation. Aldon (1998), Cardona (2000), Crossan et al. (2002), and Larkin (1994) have each approached the phenomenon of transcending leadership from a particular vantage point and basis(es). The results of this study's inquiry proposes another view of the phenomenon; one that is unique among the prevailing propositions found in the literature. Transcending leadership, as viewed through the lens of this investigation, extends the full range of leadership model by further elevating the intrapersonal needs and moral dimension of transformational leadership, suggestive of Maslow and Lowery's (1998) eighth level of human need (i.e., transcendence) and Kohlberg and Ryncarz's (1990) seventh stage of moral development (i.e., transcendental morality). This assertion might reasonably intimate that heretofore thought of transformational leaders such as Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, and others (Burns, 2003) might, in fact, be transcending leaders' given their acknowledged "other"-interest before self or mutual interest, their resolute determination to pursue broad moral and ethical social causes, and their unique and highly accentuated social and personal competencies. 

Research question 3 sought to answer the question, "Is it reasonable to propose a

transcending leadership construct" Given the results of this initial phenomenological study, it appears reasonable to propose such a construct with the ambition that it will instigate others to continue this thread of inquiry. 

P6. Transcending leadership is an iterative expansion of the extant transactional-transformational paradigm which together propound a triarchic model comprising transactional leadership, transformational leadership, and transcending leadership. 

Study Implications

Roepke (1995) maintains that leadership, which is both morally guided and oriented to

fulfilling the needs of others, is one of society's most pressing needs. In an age where leaders, particularly those in business and politics, are viewed by many to have lost their moral purpose and ethical idealism (Nair, 1994) conceptualizing and encouraging forms of leadership pracatice which "have a positive lasting effect or influene on others and/or the world" (Maldonado & Lacey, 2001, p. 80) appears urgent. This would seem particularly so within the social justice and helping professions, such as healthcare, peace advocacy, public education, civil rights, and related fields where a leader's ethical conduct, shaped by moral values and personal character, gives legitimacy and credibility to the mission of their organization or social cause (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1998). One implication of this study is that it appears to support the notion of a transcending leadership construct that may fill a void in contemporary leadership theory; one where leader motivation advances from self-interest (i.e., transactional leadership) through mutality of interest (i.e., transformational leadership) to a form which is predicated upon a moral basis(es) manifest in an "other"-interest. Pursuant to the study results, transcending leadership appears to be imbued with altruistic intent; the consequence of which results in leader self-transcendence. If ultimately deemed a credible extension to the transactional-transformational paradigm, transcending leadership may very well respond to Roepke's (1995) appellation for a new form of leadership which is morally guided and oriented toward meeting the legitimate needs of others and social causes without expectation of benefit or requite. 

Another implication of this phenomenological inquiry is that it may provide assistance in

shaping future debate concerning the viability of the transcending phenomenon. Prior to this study, no comparative review of the disparate transcending leadership propositions have been, to the knowledge of the researcher, conducted. As such, this study can reasonably be considered primary research; the intention of which is to solicit future inquiry as to the nature and viability of the phenomenon. The findings drawn from this study may conceivably contribute to the body of knowledge, as it pertains to leadership theory, by offering new insights and definitions concerning a proposed transcending leadership construct manifest within a triarchic leadership model. 

Study Limitations

Qualitative studies are inherently subject to a variety of limitations that can affect the

interpretation and generalizing of the findings, as noted in Chapter Three. The dual-role played by nominating-corroborators, restriction of the study participants to "top-leaders", applicability of the findings outside of the sample of study participants, and limits imposed on data gathering have been addressed previously. There remain, however, other limitations that should be considered in interpreting the findings of this study.

The findings in this inquiry are based on only fourteen (n=14) study participant

interviews, along with a corresponding number of nominating-corroborator discussions. Additionally, all study participants were "top-leaders" within the healthcare environment, as opposed to middle or other striations of leadership within the organization. As such, it is possible that this small group was unique and the findings may not extrapolate to or exist beyond this cohort. Although Creswell (1998) asserts that a phenomenological study include "interviews with up to ten people" (p. 65) and Boyd (2001) posits that two to ten research subjects are sufficient to reach saturation, it is reasonable to assume that the assertions made in this inquiry may have limited applicability to other cultures, organizations, or groups of leaders. 

Primary reliance upon self-reported data could also be considering an obstacle in

generalizing the results of this study. However, the use of nominating-corroborator interviews and other corroborative data collection methods, such as document examination were employed to mitigate the potentially self-serving responses of the study participants. Creswell (1997) notes that the use of corroborator data adds credibility to the qualitative (phenomenological) study (p. 82). 

Although a new leadership construct is tentatively suggested (i.e., transcending

leadership), it is possible that the perceived transcendent leaders, who served as study participants, are characterized by an existing model or construct (i.e., servant leadership, moral leadership, transformational leadership, etc.). However, the study findings appear to point to subtle, yet distinct, differences between these participants and individuals who might be considered as functioning within a different leadership model. This limitation is further advanced, due to the fact that no stipulated definition of transcending leadership currently exists in the literature, and that the study participants were nominated given a proffered, yet undetermined, definition. This particular point is somewhat chastened, given the rhetoric of qualitative research in allowing for tentative definitions of key research elements which may evolve throughout the study pursuant to new information garnered (Creswell, 2003, p. 89). 

Research bias may also serve as a limitation in this study. As acknowledged earlier in

Chapter Three, over the course of my career in the healthcare field I have observed and worked closely with a select number of individuals I would tacitly identify as presenting characteristics of transcending leadership as purported in this study. As such, the potential of certain biases in interpreting the data collected exists. However, as part of the data collection and analysis, every effort was made to ensure objectivity, including the phenomenological techniques of bracketing, epoche, as well as the engagement of a reflexivity mentor as a means of enhancing the internal trustworthiness of the study. Additionally, an expert external examiner was made part of the research design and further contributed to its authenticity, credibility, and design coherency (Creswell, 2003, p. 196). 

Lastly, although significant effort was made to examine a plethora of leadership theories,

constructs, and propositions as a means of juxtaposing the results of this study with extant theory, further study is needed to determine if the elements associated with a proposed transcending construct (i.e., "other"-interest, determined resolve, and certain aptitudes broadly associated with emotional intelligence theory) represent a new model of leadership or are embodied within an existing construct. 

In spite of these limitations, this study has added to our understanding of the leadership

phenomenon, in that the qualitative findings were rich, informative, and appear to extend contemporary leadership theory. 

Directions for Future Research

The results of this phenomenological study allude to the feasibility of a new leadership

construct; one that could contribute to the extant transactional-transformational leadership paradigm, as originally conceptualized by Burns (1978) and later operationalized by Bass and Avolio (1994). Specifically, determining the viability of a transcending leadership construct would serve to expand the continuum of "new leadership" (Bryman, 1993) theory and further enrich our understanding of the complexities inherent within the leader-follower dyad. Given this, and related implications, future research is apposite in contributing to an understanding of a proposed transcending leadership construct. 

Expanding the study's research to include individuals from throughout the strata of

employees within a healthcare organization (i.e., non-CEO supervisors or non-supervisory followers), as well as organizations outside the healthcare environment (i.e., government, education, religion, politics, advocacy, finance, industry, etc.), may offer a fruitful and deeper understanding of the nascent transcending construct. Fairholm (2003) posits leadership in a new light; one which emphasizes the importance of leading from the middle of the organization. Fairholm describes this as "inner leadership" and asserts that leaders throughout the organization - as opposed to top leaders - are key to driving organizational dynamics. A qualitative study of middle leaders may further contribute to our understanding of a proposed transcending construct. 

D1: A phenomenological study of "middle leaders", within the healthcare milieu, may further contribute to our understanding of a proposed transcending construct and serve as a juxtaposition to the results of this study as it applies to top healthcare leaders. 

Similarly phenomenological inquiry as to the nature of transcending leadership and transcendent leaders could be instigated within organizational contexts outside of the healthcare environment and among top and middle leaders. This could serve to broadly expand the scope of comparison between the results of this study and future findings among divergent types of organizations, institutions, or social collectivities. 

D2: Expanding the scope of phenomenological inquiry as it applies to perceived transcendent leaders, outside of the healthcare milieu (i.e., goverment, education, political environments, industry, public advocacy, etc.) and among the strata of organizational leadership (i.e., middle leaders and top leaders), may further contribute to our understanding of a proposed transcending construct. 

Tangentially related to the directions for future research thus far noted (i.e., D1 and D2), a

multicultural and multinational phenomenological inquiry comparing the transactional-transformational paradigm to the proposed transcending construct would add diversity and could yield important insight(s) further informing the results of this study. 

D3: An international and culturally diverse phenomenological study of "top leaders" and "middle leaders", within and external to the healthcare field and who are perceived transcendent leaders, may further contribute to our understanding of a proposed transcending construct. In effect, to what degree - if any - do the results of this study compare to the prospective findings concerning perceived transcendent leaders living and working outside of the geographic and cultural parameters stipulated in this inquiry? 

Future research concerning a transcending leadership construct may involve a more

inclusive study in which the characteristics broadly affiliated with transformational leadership, and those proferred in this study as characteristic of transcending leadership, are associated with specific contemporary or historical figures who may heretofore been deemed transformational leaders (i.e., Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, and others). This would allow a further examination between the two constructs and serve as a means of discerning what differences, if any, exist between them. It should be emphasized, however, that the phenomenological nature of the leadership experience makes it challenging to study empirically. Several approaches may serve this task including the factor analysis method employed by Bass (1985), the psycho-historical process of Burns (1978), or the interview method favored by Kohlberg (1976). 

D4: Burns (2003) has suggested that individuals such as Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela and other contemporary and historical figures are transformational leaders; given the prevailing definitional scope of the extant transactional-transformational paradigm. By re-examining the lived experiences of these and other notable leaders through the context of this study's findings certain insights may present themselves contributing to a richer understanding of the transformational construct, the proposed transcending construct, or both. 

Kim (2000) has proposed an intriguing conceptualization of transcendence and has

bifurcated the phenomenon into "vertical transcendence and horizontal transcendence" (p. 75), whereby the former is associated with the intimacies of personal spirituality and a movement toward an immanent God. Proponents of spiritual leadership or those ascribing a spiritual dynamic to a proposed transcending construct (Aldon, 1998; Larkin, 1994) might conceivably stipulate Kim's (2000) assertion concerning the vertical nature of transcendence. In contrast, Kim's notion of horizontal leadership as articulated in this study, specifically, would be instructive. That is, are perceived transcendent leaders more likely to be horizontally or vertically imbued or can the two dimensions reside in harmony and inform the other? This path of inquiry may contribute to a deeper understanding as to the nature of individual spirituality and its relationship - if any - to the nascent transcendent construct, which is yet undetermined. 

D5: Vertical and horizontal transcendence (Kim, 2000) should be examined to determine the relationship - if any - between spirituality and/or humanistic orientation vis à vis perceived transcendent leaders. 

Finally, scholars have opined on the importance of a moral valence in describing

authentic, or legitimate, leadership (Anello & Hernandez, 1996; Bass & Steidlmeir, 1998; Burns, 1978; Heifetz, 1994, etc.); that is, moral leadership, Anello and Hernandez (1996) assert six essential elements of moral leadership; elements that appear aligned with the findings of this study. The six attributes include: 

• Service-oriented leadership 

• Personal and social transformation as the purpose leadership

• The moral responsibility of investigating and applying the truth

• Belief in the essential nobility of human nature

• Transcendence (e.g., overcoming ego and selfishness)

• The development of capabilities (p. 61)

Given the findings of Anello and Hernandez, as well as the precondition of a moral dimension to authentic leadership as attested to by Burns (1978) and Bass & Avolio (1994), future research concerning the potential relationship between a proposed moral leadership phenomenon and the characteristics of transcending leadership, as articulated in this study, would be instructive as means of identifying which is less delimited and, therefore, superordinate. That is, are certain characteristics posited in the literature as being associated with moral leadership contributory, and therefore subordinate, to those attributes and aptitudes evidenced in this study concerning transcending leadership, or are the defining qualities of transcendent leaders - as evidenced in this study - a reflection of a broader phenomenon termed moral leadership? 

D6: Juxtaposing the key characteristics of a proposed transcending leadership construct, as identified in this study, with those characteristics ascribed to moral leadership, previously described in the literature, would be instructive in furthering our understanding of transcending leadership as a potentially credible iteration of "new leadership" theory. 

Study Summary

The intent of this phenomenological study was to discern the reasonableness of proposing

a transcending leadership construct by filling the gap in knowledge between those characteristics of transactional and transformational leadership, which have been established in the literature, and the unique aspects of a transcending leadership construct, which remain undetermined. The implications for current and future healthcare leaders are significant. First, the focus of transcending leadership may rest on a new posture for leaders, a stance that suggests a leader seek first to empower and assist followers in satisfying their legitimate needs and aspirations, as opposed to first pursuing leaders' self-interest. Secondly, students in health administration or in the medical professions preparing to enter the leadership ranks of healthcare delivery may find a leadership construct based upon a movement beyond self-centeredness personally compelling (Bowditch & Buone, 1994) and responsive to the local, as well as global demand for equitable healthcare quality and access. 

Study participants in this qualitative study were nominated by state hospital association

and state medical society executives. The participants included seven physicians and seven non-physician healthcare leaders representing 20 geographically diverse states. The methodology involved reconstructing the inner world of experience of 14 contemporary healthcare leaders and their respective nominating-corroborators, as a means of identifying key characteristics common among the study group. A data analysis and interpretation process incorporating methodologies suggested by Patton (1990) and Creswell (2003) were utilized as a means of identifying significant themes evidenced by the study participants. A reflexivity methodology was employed to explore and bracket researcher bias, while methods utilized to enhance credibility and trustworthiness of the findings included the strategies of triangulation, member checking, the use of peer examiners, and the engagement of an expert external examiner. Twelve categories of data were analyzed and interpreted using content analysis in conjunction with qualitative research software (i.e., NUD*IST-N6). 

The findings appear to indicate that: 

•           Perceived transcendent leaders broadly evidence three (3) key characteristics                    within their lived experiences; "other"-interest, determined resolve, and the                        personal and social competencies broadly affiliated with emotional                                    intelligence theory, along with additional aptitudes beyond the scope generally                  associated with emotional intelligence as articulated by Goleman, et al., 2002. 

•           The key characteristic of "other'-interest and those personal and social                                 competencies broadly affiliated with emotional intelligence theory are discordant               when compared with extant transactional-transformational literature. 

•            Given the discord evidenced between the findings of this study and that

              characteristics generally associated with the full range of leadership model, a

              degree of credibility is advanced in proposing the reasonableness of a

              transcending leadership construct, which would add to the transactional-

              transformational paradigm and extend "new leadership" theory. 

As this study represents a preliminary inquiry into the nature of a proposed new

leadership phenomenon, the findings cannot be generalized to other groups of leaders, organizations, cultures, or social collectivities. In spite of this, and other limitations noted throughout the study, the rich and informative inquiry has added to our understanding of the leadership phenomenon. Future directions of research may include the phenomenological study of "middle leaders", perceived to be transcendent leaders, both within and external to the healthcare environment. Similarly, a study of middle and top leaders perceived as transcendent leaders, and who concurrently contribute an international and multicultural dynamic, would add a further dimension to the study of transcending leadership. Understanding how - if at all- spiritual or humanistic proclivities influence the lives of perceived transcendent leaders would offer an intriguing insight into the nature of the phenomenon. Kim's (2000) vertical vs. horizontal transcendent framework could contribute to this inquiry. An additional fruitful direction for future research would involve a reexamination of heretofore stipulated "transformational" leaders, given the findings of this study. That is, is it reasonable to suggest that certain deemed historical or contemporary transformational leaders may be, in fact, more closely aligned with the proffered definition of transcending leadership? Finally, as it appears that a moral valence is fundamental to the resultant description of transcending leadership, it would be instructive to compare the proposed transcending construct with the characteristics broadly associated with moral leadership as a means of determining which is the least delimited, and therefore superordinate. 

Conclusion

The findings of this study conclude that leadership theory remains a mutable and

dynamic phenomenon that appears to mirror, over time, the evolving nature of societal interaction, and the leader-follower dyadic relationship. Five eras of theory have marked the migration of leadership thought over the past 150 years. The "great man" theory gave way to trait theories of leadership that, in turn, ushered in the eras of behavior theories, situation-contingency theories, and finally, the recently introduced or "new leadership" theories era. Each era, and the underlying theories which collectively reflect that period's leader-follower exchange relationship, appear to have been responsive to the psychosocial sensibilities of that time. Following the work of Burns (1978). Bass (1985), and Bass and Avolio (1994), contemporary leadership theory has focused upon the self-interest/mutuality of interest relationship exchanges associated with the transactional-transformational paradigm (i.e., full range of leadership model). More recently, there has been a call for a leadership paradigm, which would further enrich the leader-follower relationship. Proxy constructs variably termed termed spiritual leadership, moral leadership, ethical leadership, values leadership, and others have attempted to define an acceptable extension to the transformational construct which would transcend the interest of the leader for the benefit of the followers, and more so, unknown followers collectively engaged in large social causes.

Pursuant to the findings of the study, transcending leadership derives its essence in the

key characteristic of "other"-interest along with affiliated attributes of altruism, benevolence/beneficence, and empathy. Transcending leadership is proposed as a legitimate progeny to the families of leadership theory that have come before it and, in turn, may serve as a bellweather informing future iterations of the leader-follower dynamic. 

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