Source: Adapted from D. Goleman, R. Boyatzis, and A. McKee. Primal Leadership, 2002. 

Of the 14 study participants, three (n=3) were considered to exhibit a visionary

leadership style, four (n=4) evidenced an affliliative leadership style, four (n=4) are considered to have a democratic leadership style, two (n=2) reflected a coaching style of leadership, and one (n=1) suggested a pacesetting style. No participant evidenced a commanding (coercive) style of leadership. Of the 14 respondents, thirteen (n=13) evidenced leadership style behavior which, according to the Goleman, et al. model, would have either a "positive" or "most highly positive" overall impact on the work environment. One (n=1) study participant expressed leadership behaviors which would suggest a negative overall work environment impact if this style were not regularly altered or modified to reflect the situation, follower needs and expectations, or other contextual factors. 

Affiliative or democratic styles of leadership were the most frequently evidenced among t

the study participants. One respondent defined his affiliative style as, 

I try first to lead by the example I set - by being honest, by being truthful with people, and by being loyal and supportive to people. I try to bring people into the dialogue about vision and goals, which will best serve the organization - our patients - our colleagues and each other. Ultimately [my style of leadership] is to be a leader who serves others and in doing so they get charged up about wanting to do more themselves. Service to others is really quite an eloquent style of leadership in the more you - as the leader - give, the more comes back to you from those you lead. (SP1) 

A democratic style of leadership implies a leader's desire to involve followers in

decision-making through active participation. This earnest intent to involve followers was noted by study participant 11. 

I believe folks would say that my style is one of engagement - bring others into solving problems. And respect - respecting the talents of others. I would like to believe that my style represents an honest, hardworking, and passionate style that values and empowers others. (SP11)

A visionary leadership style was felt to best reflect three of the study participants. One

noted, "I guess I would say that my style of leadership involves inspiring others to live up to their potential so that we can achieve our social and community ambitions" (SP6). Another offered a more prolific response, 

I suppose you could describe my style as supportively involved. I set vision and the general culture and then let the people develop their own groundswell of enthusiasm. Movements - be they peace movements, or anti-apartheid movements, or whatever, are born because of some person with a dream - with a vision of a better future - and stands up against might big odds and sets into motion the desire of many. In a small way, that's how I describe my style of leadership - I try to understand the desires of people, I articulate that dream, and set into motion [their] collective energies. (SP12)

A fourth style of leadership evidenced by two (n=2) of the study participants is termed

the coaching style. This involves leadership behavior intended to connect followers to the long-term aspirations of the organization. Study participant 7 expressed this as follows: 

I suspect that I have a variety of styles depending on the people I'm dealing with and the sitaution, but if I had to say just one style, I guess it would be that I try to inspire people to look at the bigger and broader scheme of things and how we can together meet the interests of others before our own interests. (SP7)

Finally, one study participant was notably strident in describing his pacesetting style of

leadership; an obvious discrepant theme within this category of data. He stated, 

My style evolves from principles that are deeply held and intrinsic. And they are not situational; my leadership has a clear sense of purpose. And I think that it's [my style] simultaneously inclusive of others and exclusive in that it probably drives the culture [around me] to align or repel - attract or repel. You just have to accept that as part of [my] leadership. I'm focused, pragmatic, and I expect that those around me are equally competent at what they do. (SP5) 

In summary, the self-perceived styles of leadership attributed to the study participants

were juxtaposed to Goleman's et al. (2002) leadership style model as a means of framing the analysis. Of the six styles within the model, study participants were assigned to five including the visionary style, affiliative style, democratic style, coaching style, and pacesetting style. In terms of the impact on the overall climate of their organizations, the participating leaders self-described behaviors might be considered "positively" or "most strongly positive". Only one of the study participants self-identified a leadership style which might be considered to have a negative overall impact on the climate of an organization. 

If a theme can be drawn from this category of inquiry, it is that the study participants

perceived their style of leadership as one that engages their followers in an effort to establish emotional bonds as a prerequisite to pursuing socially beneficial causes. 

A final comment by one participating leader suggests an association between a leader's

style and a moral imperative. He commented,

I would suggest that the best leaders live their lives in the pursuit of moral purposes; how to help humanity, how to help my neighbor, and how to bring different peoples together to reach agreement. I think what makes them great leaders is their desire and courage to help others even if they're at risk of harm or ridicule. (SP2) 

An inquiry into the moral imperative of leadership, as perceived by the study participants, contributes to the expanding understanding of the leadership dynamic as experienced in the lives of perceived transcendent leaders. 

Category of Data #11: Perceptions Concerning a Moral Imperative

Ascribing with certainty a moral imperative to the leadership phenomenon is polemic.

That is, what universal standards define moral or ethical virtues relative to the act of leading others and how do these virtues manifest themselves in the leader-follower dyadic relationships? Steidlmeier (1995), for example, has suggested that love, work, fairness in exchange, ownership, and friendship are universal moral values found in broadly diverse cultures around the world; "regardless of the social customs and practices through which they are realized" (In Bass & Bteidlmeier, 1998, p. 6). Moreover, if legitimate leadership does in fact imply an ethical or moral dimension, does the requirement invoke a mandate to pursue goals that have broad social purposes? Gini (1996) offers a relative response to the former question by asserting,

... all leadership, whether good or bad, is moral leadership at the descriptive if not the normative level. To put it more accurately, all leadership is ideologically drive or motivated by a certain philosophical perspective, which upon analysis and judgement may or may not prove to be morally acceptable in the colloquial sense. (p. 10)

Adding to this ambiguity, Dewey (1960) attempted to frame mortality within the context of a culturally defined and embraced set of rules or standards that are external to the individual, yet habitual. He suggested that morality is comprised of two aspects: the standards (moral guidelines) which society adopts and reflective conduct, or personal actions that define ethics.

Moral leadership has been viewed through the litmus of a leader's personal character.

In Nichomaclean Ethics, Aristotle (1998) argued that character was the most illusive aspect of leadership and posted that a moral leader should possess the virtues of courage, temperance, generosity, self-control, honesty, sociability, modesty, fairness, and justice (Velasquez, 1992). Sheehy (1990) would add that the "issues of leadership are of today and will change in time. Character is what was yesterday and will be tomorrow" (p. 311). More recently, Anello and Hernandez (1996) would ascribe to moral leadership six essential elements: service-oriented leadership, personal and social transformation as the purpose of leadership, the moral responsibility of investigating and applying truth, belief in the essential nobility of human nature, transcendence (e.g. overcoming ego and selfishness), and the development of capabilities (p. 61). 

Given the variety of perspectives in attempting to associate a moral imperative to the

leadership phenomenon, it is reasonably stipulated that the genesis of ethical leadership conduct is rooted in the moral standards held by the leader and, in turn, "the [moral] values promoted by the leader have a significant impact on the values exhibited by the organization [and its followers]" (Northouse, 2001, p. 255). 

Understanding the study participant perceptions concerning the distinguishing aspects of

moral standard and ethical conduct serve to offer a unique insight into the leadership experience as evidenced in the lives of perceived transcendent leaders. Three questions posed to the study participants comprise this category of data. The first question asked, "Do you feel that you and the people you lead have similar or dissimilar needs, aspirations, values, and ethical (moral) standards?", elicited broadly similar responses. Each of the fourteen study participants affirmed that both they and the people they lead - and for that matter, associate with outside of the work environment - have similar aspirations, as well as moral standards. This may suggest that the moral values shared by leaders and those led have a synergistic relationship, each having the capacity to support or moderate the other. Wills (1994) notes that [moral] leadership is a mutually determined activity on the part of the leader and those led (p. 13). This notion of mutuality is alluded to by one study participant as, 

Ethical standards are grass root ideals and you know early on if you're in sync with someone or not. If not, you tend to move away from their sphere of influence instinctively. So I believe my moral and ethical beliefs about care and service have influenced those I work with and certainly their needs and values have influenced my own. (SP8) 

Migrating toward people and organizations in which followers and leaders feel a sharing of basic beliefs and aspirations was a significant theme noted by the respondents. Study participant 7 stated,

I think human nature dictates - to some extent- that we gravitate to those people and situations that we feel most comfortable with or relate to, and so, I would say that folks I work with and lead have fairly close needs and aspirations and ethical standard... we all want to help others feel better physically, emotionally, and spiritually. (SP7) 

Study participant 11 expressed a similar sentiment noting, "Organizational culture, in my opinion, is a lot like a vacuum which draws into it people whose interests and values are familiar". Another responding leader perhaps best summarized the sentiments expressed by the study participants in commenting, 

I think people tend to gravitate to clubs, friends, churches, and workplaces that hold values that are closely aligned with their own. If they're not similar, then I believe they tend to move along. That's where the role of the leader becomes evident, they set the tone for the organization, or school, or team, or whatever group. People of like minds tend to gravitate to them. So, I would say that folks that I lead have similar aspirations and moral standards to me  - and I to them. We all want to do the right thing for others, we all want to make a difference, and we all want to feel we've contributed to a greater good - a societal good. (SP14) 

Acting selflessly for the benefit of others was an additional theme noted by the study

respondents in answer to the question, "Do you feel that you and the people you lead have similar or dissimilar needs, aspirations, values, and moral standards?" Study participant 9 stated, "The desire to help has got to be a driving influence that we all share - it's even more than a desire, it's a passionate need to want to reach out and do something good for someone else." Another respondent noted, "People in healthcare come to the profession because they have a desire to serve the needs of others" (SP10). And finally, one leader offered, 

Certainly there are difference which exist, but if you mean by "moral standards" the sacred appreciation of life -  not matter how humble the person may be; the understanding that we do not harm to a person; and that our first and highest calling in life is to concern ourselves with our family and others before ourselves - then, on balance, I believe that most everyone I work with or associate with share these moral standards. (SP1)

Demonstrating complete accord, the study participants expressed a belief that the needs,

aspirations, and moral values they held dear were compatible to those held by those thy led. The respondents felt that leaders and followers had a mutual effect upon one another; galvanizing and nurturing inherently held ethical and moral values and that this synergy was expressed in the attraction of followers to leaders and, in turn, leaders to organizations which evidenced similar beliefs and ambitions. An additional theme that emerged in the comments noted by the study participants was the expressed desire to do something of benefit for others or for broader social causes. That is, the respondent leader felt that their colleagues and followers shared the same passion they held most dear; to serve the needs of others. 

A second question considered part of this category of data, and intended to further

explore the relationship between moral virtue and leadership as experienced by the study participants was, "To what extent does your leadership style involve creating goals and purposes that are morally based and supported?". Study participants, once again, fully concurred in asserting that the privilege of leadership mandated a moral certainty as expressed in goals and purposes which advanced "the good of others". This significant theme of service to others permeated the study participant responses. Study participant 3 noted, "Exceptional leaders advance morality through their actions, their honesty, and their commitment to an ideal of service [to others]." Another expressed this same sentiment in a more passionate 'voice', 

I believe that if you're in a position of leadership, you are obligated to set the highest ethical and moral standards. As such, the act of leadership - regardless of style - by its nature should involve the establishment of higher purposes; to help others to genuinely care about human beings, to show our own humanity and vulnerability. (SP4)

Inferring there exists an obligation on the part of a leader to advance goals and purposes

that are morally based, study participant 2 noted, "... the best leaders live their lives in pursuit of moral purposes; how to help humanity, how to help your neighbor, how to bring different people together...". Echoing this opinion, study participant 6 commented,

Yes, absolutely. If what I do and how I lead is not based on furthering a moral and higher purpose, then I'm not acting as a leader. Genuine leaders, in my opinion, always hold up their own actions to a moral compass that guides them in their daily efforts.

Another respondent queried, "Isn't that a core element of leadership - to establish purposes which have some moral and practical good for the benefit of another...?" (SP11). The opinion offered by study participant 10 could very well serve as a response to this rhetorical question,

You bet! That's leadership 101 - if you're not trying to leave this world a little better because of your actions, then I don't know why we exist. We've [healthcare leaders] have been given great power and authority, and I firmly believe with that comes great responsibility to do the right thing for others.

The question of intent, that is, the inherent motivation of a leader to pursue morally guided purposes was raised by one study participant,

We intrinsically know in our hearts whether what we're doing is for our own hedonistic or similar motivations, or are we doing something because it's right and others will prosper because of it. If a leader doesn't intuitively know that then, in my opinion, they aren't leaders. (SP11)

Considering leader intent is noteworthy in that it evokes a quality of moral reasoning on the part of a leader. Bass and Steidlmeir (1999) offer a framework of moral analysis, which considers both moral intention, and moral consequences vis à vis universal standards of ethical conduct. They assert, "While cultural relativities surely apply, foundational moral discourse rests upon the polarities found in both moral intention (egoism versus altruism) and in moral consequences (benefits and costs of self and others)" (p. 183). Kohlberg (1975) would suggest that the thought process behind moral behavior is what determines whether a leader is moral, rather than the behavior itself (In Wren, 1995, p. 488). This is an important consideration as we attempt to understand the responses of the participant leaders, there is every confidence that the intent to create goals and purposes that are morally based is genuine and void of any ulterior or self-serving motive.

Participant leaders were in full agreement that leadership - regardless of style - must

contribute to the creation of goals and purposes that are morally based. Further, they asserted that the compelling moral goal of the leadership act should be in advancing "the good of others". Finally, the question of leader "intent" - or quality of moral reasoning - in supporting particular goals was noted.

A final question that completes this category of data asked, "Does leadership to you

involve establishing broader moral purposes?". All of the study participants were emotive in expressing their earnest belief that the phenomenon of leadership carried with it an obligation to pursue broad moral purposes; absent this quality leadership assumes a spurious nature. Two themes emerged among the participating leaders in response to this question: moral purpose implies an ideal of service to others and leadership embodies a sacred ethic of trust between a leader and those led. 

Several of the study participants spoke to the ethic of trsut between a leader and

followers, suggesting that pursuing broad moral purposes is first rooted in a relationship of credulity. Study participant 6 noted, "the essence of a leader lies in his or her ability to establish and inspire others in meeting a broad vision. And that vision has to be based upon doing something good for others. A leader holds a sacred trust." Another leader spoke with alacrity on the relationship between trust and moral intent, 

I would say that the act of leading cannot be separated from moral intent. Leadership implies gaining the trust of others to pursue a goal and that act of trust solicitation asks a follower to relinquish their own innate self-defenses... those in a leadership role have in their hands the collective trust of many. Yes, leadership to be legitimate in my mind has to have a moral purpose as a means of recognizing and nurturing the trust willingly given to the leader by others. (SP9)

A significant theme expressed by the study participants in response to this question

focused on the association between moral purpose and altruism; that is, a consideration for others without thought of self. "A leader can't just sit there... it's all about forgetting what's in your best interests and doing what's in the interest of others" (SP11). Another stated, "There are lots of different kinds of leaders... but, I believe that the very best of them are hard wired to serve the needs of others and [to use] their intellectual skills to accomplish things others might think impossible" (SP2). Study participant 3 added, "Exceptional leaders advance morality through their actions, their honesty, and their commitment to an ideal of service." Study participant 5 broadened the dialogue concerning altruistic intent and service to others to include the virtue of benevolence, and on a larger social scale, beneficence. 

I think there are many variations on the leadership theme. Some forms of leadership are purely self-serving, other types are maniacal-evil, and others are benevolent. The essence of [genuine] leadership, to me, represents the latter of these... I think that the heart of leadership emanates from a moral intent; the desire to affect others with... no calculation for the "return" to you. (SP5)

In summary, seeking an understanding of the study participant's perceptions concerning

the moral imperative of leadership was the intent of category of data #11. Three questions were posed to the participating leaders as a means of eliciting their ingenuous opinions: did they feel that the individuals they led had similar or dissimilar needs, aspirations, values, and moral standards as themselves, to what extent did their leadership style involve the creation of morally based purposes, and did they believe leadership innately involved establishing broader moral purposes. The study participants were in accord expressing their belief that the moral values and aspirations they held were synergistic with those of their followers and that these shared values acted together to inform and contribute to higher ethical ambitions. A behavioral outcome of this galvanizing relationship was expressed desire "to serve the needs of others". Again, the theme of service to others before self was evidenced when the participating leaders were asked, "To what extent does your leadership style involve creating goals and purposes that are morally based?" They were in agreement that, regardless of the style of leadership employed, the moral imperative of leadership is "to advance the good of others." Finally, when asked if the manifestation of the leadership phenomenon involves the instigating of broad moral purposes, the study participants were unanimous in their affirmation. The participating leaders expressed certitude in their opinion that leading without simultaneously promoting a moral intent was tantamount to illegitimate or disingenous leadership. Two themes emerged in the responses to this question: that moral purpose implies an ideal of service to others without thought of self benefit, and that leadership embodies a sacred trust freely extended to followers without requite. 

Table 28 summarizes the significant themes which emerged in this category of data. 

Table 28

Moral imperative themes identified

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