"Expanding the transactional-transformative paradigm"
Leadership Research by
Dr. David A. Jordan
President, Seven Hills Foundation
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF TRANSCENDENT LEADERS
IN HEALTHCARE
By Dr. David A. Jordan
A doctoral project submitted to the faculty of the Medical University of South Carolina in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Health Administration in the College of Health Professions
Approved by:
Chair, Project Committee Andrea W. White, Ph. D
Member, Project Committee Frances W. Lee, DBA
Member, Project Committee David R. Graber, Ph. D
Dean, College of Health Professions Danielle N. Ripich, Ph. D.
Acknowledgements
No work or accomplishment is the result of a single individual. This study reflects the collective inspiration, influence, and toil of many far beyond my own efforts. I would first like to acknowledge Johanne Woods, with whom I've worked lo these many years, and who is responsible for the word processing, suggestive editing, and the found of much needed, and very appreciated encouragement throughout the research and preparation of this study.
I'd like to thank my fellow cohort doctoral students ("coho 3") and the MUSC faculty who gave so much of themselves for my benefit. The value of their lived example and friendships are a cherished gift.
The calm, yet focused, mentoring of my dissertation committee was of particular value in structuring and guiding this study. My appreciation is extended to my committee chair, Dr. Andrea White, and committee members, Dr. David Graber and Dr. Francis Lee, for sharing this journey with me. I would be remiss if I did not also acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Thomas Kent of the College of Charleston and Dr. Gilbert Fairholm from Virginia Commonwealth University who served as my reflexivity mentor and expert external examiner, respectively. Their generosity of time and thoughtful opinion was significant.
Finally, no work concerning leadership theory can, or should, fail to acknowledge the bellwethers of contemporary leadership theory who have shaped our understanding of the phenomenon; in particular, Robert K. Greenleaf and James MacGregor Burns. Their humanistic sensibilities in describiing the ethical purpose and moral intent of leading served as inspiration for this study.
Dedication
To my father and mother, Joseph and Julia Jordan. Through their lives, I've come to understand the meaning of "other"-interest and the virtues of altruism, benevolence, and empathy. Obrigado mom e dad. Meu armor eternal a você ambos para sua vida de dar selfless.
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative inquiry has been to explore the reasonableness of proposing a new leadership construct, transcending leadership, by examining the lived experiences of notable healthcare leaders. Participants in this phenomenological study were nominated by state hospital association and medical society executives and included individuals from 12 geographically diverse states; representing a variety of healthcare delivery settings and socioeconomic environments. The methodology involved hearing the voice of 14 extraordinary healthcare leaders, along with their respective nominating-corroborators, as a means of identifying key characteristics common among the study group. Twelve categories of data were analyzed and interpreted using content analysis. The findings indicate that the participating leaders shared three reoccurring characteristics: an "other"-interest, determined resolve, and the personal and social competencies broadly associated with emotional intelligence theory. When comparing the findings with extant transactional-transformational leadership theory, the characteristics of "other"-interest and aptitudes consistent with emotional intelligence appear discrepant thereby affirming the reasonableness of a transcending construct and a plausible extension to the extant full range of leadership model. The study findings were further juxtaposed with four nascent propositions; each proffering a basis(es) for the legitimacy of a transcending leadership construct.
The findings of this study propound a triarchic leadership model where the transcending construct adds to the transactional-transformational paradigm an "other"-interest perspective manifest in leader altruism, benevolence/beneficence, and empathy.
Table of Contents
Conclusion and Overview of Remaining Chapters
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
Overview of the Review of the Literature
The Evolution of Leadership Theory and Emergence of the Transactional-
Transcending leadership as a spiritually oriented construct?
Transcending leadership as a reflection of human conscious evolution?
Transcending leadership as an enhanced exchange relationship construct?
Transcending leadership as a function of strategic leadership?
Crossan, Nanjad, & Vera's (2002) proposition
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Ensuring Trustworthiness and Credibility
Findings Regarding Research Question #1
Category of Data #1: Personal background and Organizational context
Category of Data #2: Core values
Category of Data #3: Spiritual/existential influence(s)
Category of Data #4: Career highlights self-reflection
Category of Data #5: Influence of life experiences on leadership and collaboration
Category of Data #6: Perceptions of essential leadership traits
Category of Data #7: Perceptions of essential leadership behaviors
Category of Data #8: Self-reflection on motivating followers
Category of Data #9: Characteristics admired in other leaders
Category of Data #10: Self-reflection concerning leadership style
Category of Data #11: Perceptions concerning a moral imperative
Category of Data #12: Perceptions of essential leadership characteristics
Findings Regarding Research Question #1
Findings Regarding Research Question #2
Findings Regarding Research Question #3
Précis of the Nascent Propositions of Transcending Leadership
Directions for Future Research
Appendix A: Selected Leadership Trait Studies and Identified Leader Traits
Appendix B: Selected Leadership Behavior Studies and Identified Leader Behavior
Appendix C: Leadership Theory Taxonomy
Appendix D: Glossary of Selected Leadership Theories, Constructs, and Approaches
Appendix E: Expert Nominator Solicitation Letter
Appendix F: Transcendent Leader (Nominee) Solicitation Letter
Appendix G: Transcendent Leader (Nominee) Consent to Participate Form
Appendix H: Study Participant Background and Organizational Context
Appendix I: Interview Guide for Nominated Transcendent Leaders
Appendix J: Corroborator Interview Guide
Appendix K: Reflexivity Mentor Interview Guide
Appendix L: Expert External Examiner Guide
Appendix M: Medical University of South Carolina's IRB for Human Research Approval
Appendix N: Nominator-Corroborator Essence Descriptions of Perceived Transcendent Leaders
Appendix O: Selected Leadership Characertisic Studies and Identified Leader Characteristics
List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptualization of Burns' (1978) Transactional-Transforming Model of Leadership
Figure 2. Conceptualization of Burns' (1978) Transactional-Transforming Model of Leadership
with the addition of a proffered transcending leadership construct
Figure 3. Bass and Avolio's (1994) Full Range of Leadership Model
Figure 4. Zohar's (1990) Quantum Mechanic Model of Consciousness
Figure 5. Zohar's (1990) Quantum Vacuum Model of Consciousness
Figure 6. Conceptualization of Hubbard's (1990) Model of Conscious Evolution
Figure 7. Aldon's (1998) conceptualization of the evolution of leadership theory as a reflection
of the evolution of human consciousness over the epochs of societal development
Figure 8. Stages in the development of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Figure 9. Crossan, et al's (2002) organizational contextual factors
Figure 10. Crossan, et al's (1999) "41" Framework: The feed-forward/feedback organizational
Figure 11. Triangulation of extant transactional-transformational theory and proffered
transcending leadership propositions with results of phenomenological inquiry
Figure 12. Conceptualization of a triarchic leadership model conjoining the full range of
leadership model (Bass & Avolio, 1994) with a transcending construct
List of Tables
Table 1. Summary descriptions of leadership families
Table 2. Comparative depiction of Erickson's Eight Stages of Man, Maslow's Heirarchy, and
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Table 3. Comparison of characteristics associated with extant transactional-transformational
leadership thoery as stipulated by Burns (1978) and Avolio (1994)
Table 4. Summary of selected research studies associating spirituality and leadership
Table 5. Comparative depiction of individual and societal models of human conscious evolution
Table 6. Ten characteristics of the servant leader
Table 7. United State's health spending by major category (2002)
Table 8. Taxonomy of a relational leadership model as suggested by Cardona (2000)
Table 9. Comparison of contextual factors in analyzing organizational receptivity/applicability to
Table 10. Elements of transcendent leadership as suggested by Crossan et al. (2002)
Table 11. Comparison of the propositions asserting the reasonableness of a transcending
Table 12. Relationship of research methods to data collection
Table 13. The research methodology employed in this study of perceived transcendent leaders
Table 14. Summary findings concerning R1: "What are the key characteristics of healthcare
professsionals who are perceived to be transcendent leaders?"
Table 15. Responses of the study participants re: core values
Table 16. Influence of spiritual/existential beliefs on the work lives of perceived transcendent
Table 17. Career highlight themes of perceived transcendent leaders
Table 18. Life experience drivers influencing leadership and resultant collaborative behavior
Table 19. Leadership traits identified as essential to healthcare leaders
Table 20. Trait themes identified
Table 21. Leadership behaviors identified as essential to healthcare leaders
Table 22. Behavior themes identified
Table 23. Motivational techniques utilized by study participants
Table 24. Motivational technique themes
Table 25. Admired leaders and perceived characteristics identified by study participants
Table 26. Characterisic themes of admired leaders
Table 27. Self-reflected leadership style of study participants
Table 28. Moral imperative themes identified
Table 29. Leadership characteristics (distinguishing features) identified as essential to healthcare
Table 30. Characteristic themes identified
Table 31. Emotional intelligence domains and associated competencies
Table 32. Leader-follower motivation and exchange findings
Table 33. Conceptualization of a proposed transcending leadership construct as suggested by the
findings associated with R1 and R2